First of all, we must ask ourselves why the focus needs to be placed on men and on fostering caring masculinities. Well, the answer is simple. This is a social need and it is only fair to women and to society in general for men to be involved in care. Contemporary western societies are gradually changing the traditional sexual division of work. During most of the 20th century, in heterosexual couples the breadwinner model, where the man took the role of primary economic support of the family and the woman the role of primary carer, was dominant. Women’s work was the home and care, with or without a supplementary job with lower pay and more insecure working conditions. This family model started to be destabilised in the sixties and seventies with rising divorce rates and women’s struggle for equality, education and employment rights and birth control.
In the emerging family models, both members of the couple have paid work and both take on the role of breadwinner; these are known as dual-income families. Today this is the majority family model, having displaced the traditional model of the male breadwinner focused on work and the woman centred on care and the private sphere. However, this change of model does not mean that the societies undergoing this change have achieved equality between men and women. While there have been improvements, horizontal and vertical gender segregation persists on the labour market. For women, the glass ceiling and the sticky floor mean fewer opportunities, greater employment insecurity and a persistent pay gap in comparison with men. These inequalities on the labour market contribute to keeping up the difference in the time each spends on care.
Even though women have gradually increased the time they spend on paid work and have reduced the time spent on unpaid domestic work and care (with the opposite trend among men), the differences remain significant. In Spain, for instance, working women spend on average twice as much time on housework and caring for their children as men [1]1 — Gracia, P.; García Román, J. (January 12, 2015). Género y trabajo doméstico: ¿Tiende España a la igualdad? (Gender and domestic work: Does Spain tend to be equal?). ElDiario.es. Available online. . Women take on the majority of care, which overloads them. That is to say, they have a second working day when they get home, or even three if we take into account the organisation and logistics of care, the mental load, tasks that are also generally performed by women. This greater involvement of women in care also penalises them on the labour market, as it is usually them who shorten their working day or ask for time out to deal with family care. In general, this means less chance of promotion and advancement at work; and for organisations, a loss of female talent.
It is both a social need and a matter of fairness to progress in equality, reduce inequalities on the labour market and build up men’s involvement in care work
This situation, together with the fragmentation and breakup of support networks, the lack of public policy towards families and the increased need for care due to ageing European societies is leading to a crisis in care, manifested in the collapse of families’ ability to care [2]2 — Comes d’Argemir, D. (2016) Homes cuidadors: Barreres de gènere i models emergents (Male caregivers: Gender barriers and emerging models). Psicoperspectives 15 (3): 10-22. . In this context, as pointed out above, it is both a social need and a matter of fairness to progress in equality, reduce inequalities on the labour market and encourage and build up men’s involvement in care work.
Barriers that impede men becoming involved in care
Bárbara Risman [3]3 — Risman, B.J. (2004) Gender as a social structure. Theory wrestling with activism. Gender & Society 18 (4): 429-450. proposes a theoretical focus on analysing gender as a social structure in which individual, relational, economic, cultural and institutional factors constantly interact. Her proposal consists of analysing these factors together. This proposal brings together structure and subject in interaction to explain gender relations and inequality.
At individual level, we can talk about differential socialisation and the construction of identities based on the gender roles and mandates that predominate in a particular society at a particular time, also bearing in mind the relationship between gender and other social categories such as class, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation and so on. In interpersonal relations, in everyday social interaction, there come into play the social roles that men and women adopt, or hope to adopt, in accordance with economic and cultural expectations. At institutional level this concerns the rules, laws, distribution of resources in organisations—which are different for men and women—and the ideological discourses that justify these differences.
One of the mandates of patriarchal masculine socialisation is the negation of vulnerability, as men must be strong. However, vulnerability forms part of our nature. We are born vulnerable and, as long as we exist, we will always live with it. From birth, and especially in childhood, we are extremely vulnerable: we need someone to look after us, physically, psychologically and emotionally. We need food, warmth, hygiene and so on, but we also need someone to look at us, respect who we are, our peculiarities, to be listened to, to be spoken to with love. As we grow up we gain autonomy, though we are never completely independent: there are moments in life or individual situations in which we may experience needs (illnesses, conflicts, breakups and the like). In old age we once again experience a process of serious motor deterioration and go back to depending to a great extent on others. For men it is very hard to understand this vulnerability we experience because it clashes with one of the most deeply-rooted mandates of patriarchal masculinity: “I can do it myself,” “I can handle it”.
The majority model we learned involved dominating situations, not experiencing fragility or dependence, as this might make us “unmanly”. We learned not to see our vulnerable side and we also had to force ourselves not to see it in others. Recognising other people’s vulnerability could remind us of our own, so we have gradually shifted this whole side of things to our female partners, to those who have been taught to deal with it. So how is vulnerability dealt with? Vulnerability is dealt with through care. Care, both of oneself and of others, is the action of dealing with vulnerability. We could also include here, as well as human care (physical and emotional health in relationships, fatherhood, commitment), care for the home, for animals, for our surroundings, for the planet. Things aren’t just created and that’s it, they need maintenance, particular care. However, it is clear that, in this patriarchal system care (especially human care), has been assigned to women. They are the ones who have to take on most of the world of care. This has been experienced by many men as a privilege, as being responsible for care in the family, for example, is not particularly valued socially or praised among men.
Educational level, relative resources, the income level of each member of the couple and the time available also explain the decisions and negotiating power of men and women in the division of reproductive and care tasks in families. As we have pointed out, pay differentials and insecure employment, which affect women more, work against them and against the equal distribution of care.
At institutional level, in recent years the need to involve men in care has been understood and initiatives, largely public, have been taken to try to encourage this involvement, such as extending paternity leave
At institutional level, in recent years the need to involve men in care has been understood and initiatives, largely public, have been taken to try to encourage this involvement. One example is the progress made in many countries in extending paternity leave. Behind this extension is the idea that care, in this case of children, must be shared. Long, paid and non-transferable paternity leave helps to develop, in men who lack it, a link to their children that allows greater involvement in care in the long term. It is also a response to social demand from increasing numbers of men who want an active, responsible fatherhood. This commitment by men to fatherhood, and to care in general, encourages more egalitarian gender relations and helps to (re)signify masculinities towards dissident models, alternatives to the traditionally dominant masculinity. However, despite these achievements and progress, there is still a long way to go in public policy and private initiative to include men in gender equality and the fostering of caring masculinities.
Caring masculinities
The concept of caring masculinities is relatively recent, but is inspired by the concept of the universal caregiver coined by Nancy Fraser [4]4 — Fraser, N. (1997) Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “Postsocialist” Condition. New York, NY: Routledge. , which sets out to highlight the value of care tasks and to encourage men to get involved in them, in order to achieve gender equality. The status of universal caregiver means equality is achieved when men devote the same or more time to care than women. From this point of view, care is the basis of social and economic cooperation that applies to both men and women. Hanlon [5]5 — Hanlon, N. (2012) Masculinities, care and equality. Identity and nurture in Men’s live. London: Palgrave MacMillan. , Elliot [6]6 — Elliot, K. (2016). Caring Masculinities: Theorizing an Emerging Concept. Men and Masculinities 19 (3): 240-259. and Scambor et al. [7]7 — Scambor, E., Bergmann, N., Wojnicka, K., Belghiti-Mahut, S., Hearn, J., Holter, O.G., Gärtner, M., Hrženjak, M., Scambor, C. & A. White (2014). Men and Gender Equality: European Insights. Men and Masculinities 17 (5): 552-577. develop the concept of caring masculinities as an antithesis to the dominant masculinity, because care tasks require men to adopt values and features of care that are contrary to this dominant masculinity. They also stress that caring masculinities are a critical form of commitment by men to gender equality.
Thus, these models of masculinity are a variation on masculinity that involves values derived from feminist care ethics, for example attention, interdependence, shared responsibility, support and empathy. This type of masculinity is also characterised by a rejection of violence and male domination. A range of research has placed the focus on the benefits of encouraging caring masculinities for men, women and society in general. Among other things, the reduction in the costs associated with the dominant masculinity, including behaviour involving violence, risk, poor care of oneself and one’s health, substance abuse and lower life expectancy [8]8 — Holter, O. G. (2013). Masculinities, Gender Equality and Violence. Masculinities & Social Change, 2 (1): 51–81. .
The status of universal caregiver means equality is achieved when men devote the same or more time to care than women; care tasks require men to adopt values and features that are contrary to the dominant masculinity
This emerging model of masculinity contributes to gender equality. However, today’s societies are increasingly polarised, with opposed views and ideologies. On the one hand, progress towards equality is obvious in many areas, and also in men’s involvement in care, especially childcare. On the other, resistance and discourses in favour of the traditional role of men in society, far from disappearing, are gaining strength among some groups of men. For example, among men afraid of losing the privileges patriarchal societies have conferred on them simply for being men. The rise of far-right parties in most European countries, based in many cases on young men, is justifying these discourses that threaten and question achievements in the field of gender equality.
How can we foster caring masculinities in everyday life?
In most cases, when men take on care responsibilities they do so by looking after children. This is the way, often the only one, for many men to enter the world of care, but the fostering of caring masculinities cannot be limited solely to the family sphere. The notion of care must be expanded to take in other fields such as caring for friendships, the community, the environment and self-care, health and personal development. This broader notion and the idea of shared responsibility for care needs to form part of people’s education and upbringing. Men, and society in general, need to learn that care is essential to sustain life. In this respect, in the primary and secondary socialisation of people, value needs to be attached to care for others and for oneself. This is especially important in the case of boys, because if they learn at an early age the importance of caring for others and for oneself we will be helping to develop a kind of masculinity other than that of competition, fighting, trying too hard, unhealthy, risky behaviours and violence. This change of perspective must be supported in education, in the curriculum, but also in public policy and in the media, by giving visibility to models of masculinity that attach value to care.
Furthermore, men need to think critically about our role in care. This must involve recognising the power structures associated with patriarchy, male privilege and domination and the subordination of women. In this context, unpaid work and care have been devalued because they were traditionally assigned to women. This critical reflection must focus on the social and personal costs of not involving men in care. It must also stress the benefits of encouraging caring masculinity for equality, for men and for society. A more egalitarian society is not only fairer and less violent, but also gives higher levels of satisfaction and personal happiness.
The other front lies in pursuing policies focusing on reducing employment inequality and the pay gap between men and women, and in fostering caring masculinities. Long-term, paid, non-transferable paternity leave was mentioned above as a good way of boosting caring masculinities. Companies, both public and private, can also take steps to change society through a commitment to equality. An example of this is the European project Men in Care [9]9 — UNED (July 16, 2020) Men in care. Workplace support for caring masculinities. Available online. , which sets out to reduce the barriers to men developing caring attitudes and practices in organisations. The goal is to improve working conditions and reflect on the patriarchal culture in organisations in order to help men to adopt care roles.
The first phase of the project highlights the factors inhibiting and encouraging involvement in care by men. One obvious point is that men get involved more when it is made easier for them and they are not penalised either formally or informally. This happens more often in companies where the leadership clearly supports the implementation of measures to encourage equality or even where managers set an example and a model for employees to follow in not giving up their care tasks even when they hold a position of responsibility. Companies that commit to diversity and include women and men who do not represent the traditionally dominant masculinity in management positions are also more open to promoting a caring culture in their organisations and among men. Employees and their union representatives, when they are sensitised, can be agents of change and promote equality and the development of caring masculinities. Moreover, from an economic point of view, flexibility and measures to support a jointly responsible work, life and personal balance have benefits for organisations in terms of improved industrial relations, reduced absenteeism and increased productivity.
The Men in Care project has a direct impact on companies that want to start changing gender culture in their organisation and do away with patterns and models linked to the dominant masculinity. Awareness-raising events and workshops, both mixed and non-mixed, for management, union representatives and employees foster thought and changes to move towards a culture of care that explicitly includes men.
The path towards equality and the development of dissident, caring masculinities involves moving away from gender norms and making it possible for alternatives to flourish in which men and women can lead more sustainable lives, both personally and socially
The path towards equality and the development of dissident, caring masculinities involves moving away from gender norms and making it possible for alternatives to flourish in which men (and women) can lead more sustainable lives, both personally and socially. The fostering of caring masculinities must focus on questioning systems of domination—patriarchy and capitalism—and cut across every sphere of life: the family, education, the world of work, politics, the media and relations between humans and non-humans. In a world in crisis like today’s, care needs to become the epicentre of social change. The word care comes from Latin cogitatus and this etymology implies co- (joint or shared action) and agitare (setting in motion, agitating, turning things over, moving forward). It is perhaps time for joint action to turn things around and in this respect men bear the responsibility to change individually and collectively. To make care the driving force in our lives, for the common good.
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References
1 —Gracia, P.; García Román, J. (January 12, 2015). Género y trabajo doméstico: ¿Tiende España a la igualdad? (Gender and domestic work: Does Spain tend to be equal?). ElDiario.es. Available online.
2 —Comes d’Argemir, D. (2016) Homes cuidadors: Barreres de gènere i models emergents (Male caregivers: Gender barriers and emerging models). Psicoperspectives 15 (3): 10-22.
3 —Risman, B.J. (2004) Gender as a social structure. Theory wrestling with activism. Gender & Society 18 (4): 429-450.
4 —Fraser, N. (1997) Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “Postsocialist” Condition. New York, NY: Routledge.
5 —Hanlon, N. (2012) Masculinities, care and equality. Identity and nurture in Men’s live. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
6 —Elliot, K. (2016). Caring Masculinities: Theorizing an Emerging Concept. Men and Masculinities 19 (3): 240-259.
7 —Scambor, E., Bergmann, N., Wojnicka, K., Belghiti-Mahut, S., Hearn, J., Holter, O.G., Gärtner, M., Hrženjak, M., Scambor, C. & A. White (2014). Men and Gender Equality: European Insights. Men and Masculinities 17 (5): 552-577.
8 —Holter, O. G. (2013). Masculinities, Gender Equality and Violence. Masculinities & Social Change, 2 (1): 51–81.
9 —UNED (July 16, 2020) Men in care. Workplace support for caring masculinities. Available online.
Paco Abril
Paco Abril holds a PhD in Knowledge and Information Society. He is an associate lecturer at the Faculty of Education and Psychology of the University of Girona and on the Bachelor's degree in Humanities and Social Sciences at the UOC (Catalan Open University). He is also a member of the research group Medusa – Genders in transition: masculinities, affections, bodies and technoscience. His research interests are focused on the change and transition of men towards dissident, alternative models of masculinity. He is currently part of the European project Men in Care, which sets out to foster caring masculinities within businesses and organisations. He is also part of a project on the (re)signifying of masculinities in prison environments. He combines his teaching and research side with activism in Homes Igualitaris - AHIGE Catalunya, a Catalan association of pro-equality men where he works on projects to educate and raise awareness on masculinities among young people and different groups of men.
